Lilies of the world: Lilium species database


Lilium majoense picture by Riz Ryes

The Genus Lilium

The Genus Lilium: Global Distribution and Diversity

The genus Lilium (family Liliaceae) comprises over 100 recognized species and nearly 200 taxa when subspecies (ssp.) and varieties (var.) are included.

Native lilies occur throughout the temperate Northern Hemisphere, primarily between 30° and 60° north latitude, with the furthest northern populations reaching 64–65°N in the case of Lilium philadelphicum. At the opposite extreme, the southernmost verified native lilies occur on Hainan Island, China, at approximately 18°N, where Lilium brownii var. viridulum and L. brownii var. brownii grow naturally. Several species have been introduced far beyond their original ranges and have established naturalized or even feral populations. Lilium candidum has been reported naturalized in Mexico; Lilium formosanum has escaped cultivation in Africa, Australia, and Hawai‘i; and Lilium pyrenaicum is naturalized in parts of England and Scotland. Other species have almost certainly naturalized in additional non-native habitats, reflecting both the genus’s horticultural popularity and its ecological adaptability. A notable example is Lilium zairii (Syn. Lilium formosanum), first discovered in Central Africa but now understood to be a feral derivative of L. formosanum, demonstrating how readily some lilies can persist outside their native ranges.

Although true lilies (genus Lilium) are cultivated worldwide, they are not generally considered invasive plants. Most species reproduce slowly, require specific soil and climate conditions, and lack the aggressive rhizomatous growth typical of genuinely invasive ornamentals. Consequently, the majority of Lilium species do not spread far beyond their planting sites and rarely pose a threat to native vegetation. Their natural sensitivity to drought, shade, and competition further limits their ability to dominate new environments.

A few species, however, have demonstrated the capacity to naturalize widely and may behave invasively under the right conditions. The most prominent example is Lilium formosanum, which has escaped cultivation and become invasive in regions such as Hawai‘i, South Africa, and parts of Australia, where it spreads rapidly by seed in disturbed or open habitats. Other species, including Lilium lancifolium, Lilium candidum, and Lilium pyrenaicum, have naturalized in various parts of the world but rarely pose ecological threats and are not classified as invasive. These species tend to persist rather than proliferate aggressively, underscoring that while naturalization is relatively common among cultivated lilies, true ecological invasiveness within the genus is uncommon.

Centers of Diversity

North America: approximately 30 species, mainly along the western and eastern coasts.

  • Europe: about 10 species, primarily Section Liriotypus.

  • Middle and East Asia: roughly 70 species, the global center of diversity.

  • Japan and the Russian Far East: around 30 species, 10 of which are endemic to Japan.

  • Indochina: few but morphologically complex species near the southern limits of the genus.

This distribution underlies the taxonomic and phylogenetic divisions within Lilium.

Distribution of the genus Lilium globally.

Recent DNA research reveals greater genetic diversity in Lilium than previously recognized. However, there is debate over whether these genetic distinctions represent new species or variation within broader species complexes.

Geographic isolation, genetic drift, and microhabitat adaptation can produce local phenotypes without full speciation.

Balancing molecular data with ecological and morphological context is therefore critical to avoid taxonomic over-splitting.¹

Defining a Species

A species is the most specific rank in biological classification, a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. Yet even this definition varies by discipline.

In Lilium, interbreeding occurs mainly within regional or phylogenetic complexes. Western American lilies, for example, can often cross with each other, but rarely with Asian or European species. Artificial hybrids, so-called “Frankenlilies”, may cross boundaries that do not occur naturally but do not constitute new species in the biological sense.

Because “species” can be defined in multiple ways, it is important to state which concept is being used. Common frameworks include:

  • Taxonomic species: defined by shared physical traits suggesting close relationship.

  • Genetic species: genetically isolated populations identified through DNA data.

  • Evolutionarily significant species: recognized for conservation purposes.

  • Phylogenetic species: a distinct evolutionary lineage maintaining genetic integrity over time.

  • Ecological (niche) species: populations adapted to a specific ecological setting.

Each emphasizes different criteria, morphology, genetics, ecology, or conservation value, so definitions must be applied consistently and with context.²

Subspecies, Varieties, and Natural Variation

Subspecies and varieties represent populations closely related to the parent species but showing regional or phenotypic distinction.

They typically occur in broad complexes with wide variation in form and habitat, such as the Lilium pardalinum complex in western North America and the L. nepalense complex in Asia.³

Geographic isolation often drives these differences. Over time, separation limits genetic exchange, allowing drift and local adaptation to produce distinct phenotypes. These groups remain part of the parent species but may represent early divergence, incipient species.

Taxonomists must balance recognition of genuine divergence with restraint against excessive splitting.

A useful analogy is that of Pacific salmon: many populations return to different tributaries but remain part of the same species. Similarly, many Lilium forms are regional variants rather than distinct taxa.

Accurate classification requires evaluating morphology, genetics, and ecology together.⁴

Classical Taxonomic Sections (Comber 1949)


Global Lilium distribution by section (approximation)

The genus Lilium is traditionally divided into seven sections, following Comber (1949).⁵

These group species by morphology and geography and remain the framework for most horticultural and floristic work.

Section – Region or Type

Martagon – Europe and western Asia
Liriotypus – Mediterranean and Persia
Archelirion – Eastern Asia (Japan, China)
Sinomartagon – Central and East Asia (Asiatic section)
Pseudolirium – North America
Leucolirion – Southeast Asia (trumpet section)
Daurolirion – Himalayas and Mongolia

Baranova (1988) later proposed finer divisions, creating 11 sections and reassigning some European species.⁶

Despite such refinements, Comber’s structure remains the most practical basis for classification.

Modern Cladistic Reorganization
(see, The Phylogeny and Evolutionary Structure of the Genus Lilium)

Advances in molecular genetics have refined our understanding of Lilium.
While Comber’s sections are still recognized, DNA studies show they cluster into a few major evolutionary lineages, often referred to as Groups A, B, and C.⁷

These represent deep genetic branches rather than morphological categories.

Genus: Lilium

  • Group A: Basal Lineages

    • Section Liriotypus
    • Section Martagon
    • Section Pseudolirium

  • Group B: Asiatic / Oriental Lineages

    • Section Sinomartagon
    • Section Leucolirion
    • Section Archelirion

  • Group C: Transitional (sometimes merged with Group B)

    • Section Daurolirion

Group A: includes basal, early-diverging lineages, generally pendant-flowered and lacking papillae on the tepal bases.

Group B: includes derived Asiatic and Oriental species with large, upright, or outward-facing flowers.

Group C: contains transitional taxa bridging the two major lineages.

This organization reflects molecular phylogeny while maintaining compatibility with classical taxonomy.

A New Way of Ranking: Cladistic

Modern evolutionary biology emphasizes clades, monophyletic groups that include all descendants of a common ancestor, over rigid Linnaean ranks.
Clades are defined through DNA analysis and may correspond to sections, subgenera, or complexes depending on evolutionary depth.⁸

Rank and Function:

  • Clade: Monophyletic group defined by shared genetic ancestry; may include one or more traditional ranks.
  • Order: Higher taxonomic level encompassing multiple families.
  • Family: Group of related genera sharing structural and reproductive traits.
  • Tribe: Subdivision within a family uniting closely related genera.
  • Genus: Group of closely related species sharing genetic and morphological traits.
  • Subgenus: Division within a genus grouping multiple sections with shared ancestry.
  • Section: Cluster of closely related species within a genus; often corresponds to an evolutionary lineage.
  • Species: Basic biological unit—an interbreeding population.
  • Subspecies: Geographically or ecologically distinct population within a species.
  • Variety: Stable genetic variant within a species, differing in minor but heritable traits.
  • Form: Small morphological deviation, often horticultural or naturally occurring.

Cladistics complements, rather than replaces, traditional taxonomy.
Linnaean ranks provide structure and consistency, while clades reveal true evolutionary relationships.

Integrating both approaches gives a more complete understanding of Lilium evolution, from the Mediterranean Liriotypus to the American Pseudolirium and Asiatic Sinomartagon lineages.⁹

Practical Implications and Conclusion

The Lilium Species Foundation is dedicated to understanding and preserving the genus Lilium and its relatives.

Accurate taxonomy underpins conservation, cultivation, and education.
When discussing a “species,” clarity about the definition being used is essential, as is awareness of geographic isolation and evolutionary history.

For growers and conservationists, careful documentation of provenance, soil, and climate conditions is invaluable.

Misidentification and seed-source ambiguity can undermine both cultivation success and conservation value.

In short, good taxonomy begins with good information. Thoughtful preparation, record-keeping, and respect for natural variation ensure that both science and cultivation of lilies remain grounded, accurate, and enduring.

Lily Species by Section

The hierarchy used here follows Comber (1949), with adjustments to reflect modern molecular findings. (Source: McRae, E.A., Lilies: A Guide for Growers and Collectors, 1998)

Group A

Section 1 martagon, (A,S1) Eurasia (Europe & Asia): The name martagon traces back to Ottoman Turkish, referring to a distinctive style of turban worn during the early Ottoman period and associated in some accounts with Sultan Mehmed a comparison early European botanists made to the recurved, backward-sweeping tepals of these lilies. The flower’s silhouette, drooping, reflexed, and tightly curled, evoked the flared edges of this traditional headgear, leading Renaissance herbalists to adopt the term martagon to signify a “turban lily.” This same root also appears in Sinomartagon (“Chinese turban lily”), making the etymology parallel and morphologically descriptive across sections.


section Martagon

Geographically, Section Martagon occupies a broad, cool-temperate arc across Eurasia, forming the northern counterpart to both the southwest Chinese trumpet lilies (Leucolirion) and the widespread Sino–Indochinese Asiatic lilies (Sinomartagon). Its core range begins in the mountain systems of central Europe, the Alps, Carpathians, and Dinaric ranges, and extends across Poland, the Balkans, Hungary, Romania, and western Ukraine. From there it continues eastward into southern Russia, the southern Ural Mountains, and the south Siberian ranges of the Altai, Sayan, and Baikal region. Throughout this distribution, Martagon lilies are associated with cool summers, montane forests, shaded woodland margins, and high-elevation meadows.

Although wide-ranging, the section avoids both extremes: it is absent from the Mediterranean lowlands to the south and from Scandinavia or the Arctic taiga to the north, keeping to a temperate, forested mid-latitude band. In this way, Martagon forms the Eurasian cool-temperate lily complex, sitting geographically between the trumpets of southwest China (Leucolirion) and the vast Asiatic radiation of Sinomartagon. (McRae 1998)

Section 2, Pseudolirium, (A,S2) North America (USA & Canada). Section Pseudolirium includes all the native North American Lilium species, roughly twenty-one in tota, making it the sole section of the genus restricted entirely to the New World. The name is formed from the Greek components pseudo-, meaning false or resembling, and lirion, meaning lily or flower. In botanical Latin, however, the sense is not “false lily,” but rather “lily-like,” “resembling the Old World lilies,” or parallel to the true lirion group. The name reflects early taxonomic thinking: North American lilies share many structural traits with Eurasian groups but form a distinct evolutionary lineage clearly separated from their Old World relatives.

Geographically, Pseudolirium occupies a broad but ecologically specific range across western, central, and eastern North America, with centers of diversity along the Pacific Coast, the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range, and across the Rocky Mountains, as well as the southeastern United States and parts of the Appalachians. The section spans habitats from wet coastal forests, bogs, and montane meadows to high-elevation ridges, post-fire chaparral, and prairie or savanna margins. Many species are adapted to disturbance regimes, especially periodic wildfire, while others prefer moist riparian zones or subalpine slopes. This ecological breadth makes Pseudolirium one of the most diverse sections of Lilium in terms of habitat and growth form.

Taxonomically, the section is divided into four subsections, based on morphology, seed type, ecology, and evolutionary relationships. Though treatments differ slightly between authors, the four classical groupings separate the western fire-following lilies, the coastal and montane species, the Rocky Mountain and interior taxa, and the eastern/southeastern species. Together these subsections encompass the full radiation of North American lilies, whose diversity rivals, and in some regions exceeds, their Old World counterparts.

As with the other major sections of Lilium, the name Pseudolirium follows the same linguistic pattern using ancient Greek roots to encode morphological and geographic meaning. In the case of Pseudolirium, this meaning is “the lilies that resemble the Old World lirion group but are distinct and separate in origin,” marking the section as the New World counterpart to the Eurasian lily radiations.


Section pseudolirion

Section 3 Liriotypus, (A,S3) Mediterranean (Caucuses, Persia): Section Liriotypus is named from the Greek lírio (λείριον), meaning flower or lily, and týpos (τύπος), meaning a figure, model, or classical archetype. The name therefore signifies the “classical lily type,” almost certainly in reference to Lilium candidum, the Madonna Lily, which for millennia has been regarded as the quintessential lily in Western art, religion, and horticultural symbolism. Its elegant, star-shaped, outward-facing flowers and long cultural history made L. candidum the visual and symbolic “type” against which other lilies were compared.


Section Liriotypus

According to Comber (1949), Section Liriotypus includes approximately twenty species and encompasses all European, Turkish, and Caucasian lilies except for Lilium martagon, which, due to its unique morphology and exceptionally wide Eurasian range, belongs to Section Martagon. The boundaries of Liriotypus are defined biogeographically by a longstanding distribution gap: as Stern (1938) noted, no wild lilies occur between Asia Minor / the Caucasus and eastern Afghanistan, meaning that Liriotypus contains all Lilium species native to regions west of this gap—essentially, the lilies of Europe and the Near East.

Morphologically, most Liriotypus species share the characteristic Turk’s cap (recurved) flower form, along with scattered, spirally arranged leaves, features that distinguish them from the trumpet lilies of Leucolirion and the upright or outward-facing forms of Archelirion. Two notable exceptions exist within the section: Lilium candidum, with its widely funnel-shaped, nearly trumpet-like flowers, and Lilium bulbiferum, whose blooms are erect and bowl-shaped. These exceptions illustrate the diversity contained within Liriotypus, yet the majority of species adhere to the classic reflexed “Turk’s cap” phenotype defined by McRae (1998).

As a whole, Section Liriotypus represents the classical Western lily lineage, linking the lilies of Europe, Anatolia, and the Caucasus through shared floral architecture, biogeography, and a long history of cultural significance.

Section 4 Archelirion (oriental selection): The name Archelirion is formed from the Greek archē (ἀρχή), meaning first, principal, or overarching, and lírio / lirion (λείριον), meaning flower or lily. In botanical interpretation, the name conveys the sense of the “principal lily,” “overarching lily,” or more literally, the “open lily,” in reference to the characteristic broad, outward-facing flowers that define this group. Unlike the reflexed, turban-shaped blossoms of Martagon or the long, narrow trumpets of Leucolirion, the flowers of Archelirion present widely and dramatically, making them among the most iconic lilies in East Asia.


section Archelirion

Section Archelirion includes most of the indigenous lilies of Japan, extending through the islands of Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu chain, with additional species occurring in Taiwan, Korea, and the southeastern coast of China (particularly Fujian, Zhejiang, Guangdong, and Guangxi). This section can be a bit confusing, especially regarding the island lilies of the Ryukyu–Taiwan–Luzon Arc (see The Southern Maritime Lineage of Section Archelirion: Japan, Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, and Luzon), where the floristic boundaries between Archelirion and certain marginal Sinomartagon species blur, and where island endemics show transitional morphological traits shaped by monsoonal, coastal, and montane environments.

Ecologically, Archelirion is associated with humid, maritime climates, monsoon-driven summers, and montane to submontane forest margins, conditions that favor the development of large, flared, often intensely fragrant blossoms. Species such as Lilium auratum, L. speciosum, L. japonicum, and L. nobilissimum exemplify this combination of open floral architecture, strong coloration, and pronounced scent. These features have made Archelirion one of the most influential sections in lily horticulture, forming the primary foundation of the Oriental hybrid group, which dominates modern ornamental breeding.

In summary, Archelirion represents the open-flowered, maritime East Asian lineage of the genus Lilium, centered in Japan but extending into Taiwan, Korea, and coastal China. Its complex interplay of island biogeography and monsoonal ecology mirrors, in the eastern arc of Asia, the same regional coherence found in Leucolirion in southwestern China and Liriotypus in Europe.

Section 5 sinomartagon Native to China, Bhutan, and Indochina (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam), the Sinomartagon section includes a wide array of Asiatic lilies adapted to temperate, montane, and subtropical environments. The name itself reflects its origins: Sinomartagon combines Sin- meaning Chinese (from Latin Sinæ, the Chinese, ultimately from Ptolemaic Greek Sinai and Arabic Sin, all likely derived from Chinese Qin, the name of the Qin dynasty), with martagon, already discussed in Section 1, referring to the turban-shaped form found in several Old World lily species. Literaly meaning "Chinese Turban' or 'Chinese Martagon'.


section Sinomartagon

This section is diverse and taxonomically complex, and it is typically divided into three subsections based on morphology, ecology, and geographic distribution. Sinomartagon occupies most of China, extending broadly across the northeast, north, central, eastern, and southern provinces, and reaching southward into Bhutan and the montane regions of northern Indochina (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam).

Within this vast Sino–Indochinese range lies a much more restricted enclave concentrated in southwest and west-central China, notably Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi, Chongqing, and northern Yunnan, with smaller extensions into western Hubei and eastern Tibet. This limited restricted region represents Section Leucolirion, the heartland of the true Chinese trumpet lilies (L. regale, L. sargentiae, L. sulphureum, L. leucanthum, L. brownii, and L. henryi), whose narrow distribution contrasts sharply with the expansive range of Sinomartagon.

The designation of these species have been debated for some time. It is widely accepted that this section of species in Indochina, Bhutan, Myanmar (Burma), etc. are a taxonomical disaster. Until further research can accurately separate them into their proper sections we will leave them for now in the section they have been placed with the acknowledgment they might be moved or reclassified later.

Section 6 Leucolirion (trumpet section) (China): the true Chinese trumpet lilies, is traditionally divided into two subsections based on floral morphology, ecological preferences, and geographic distribution. The name itself comes from the Greek roots leuco- meaning “white” or “light-colored,” and lirion meaning “lily,” a fitting description for the section’s pale, fragrant, trumpet-shaped flowers. Although not all species are strictly white, the entire group is unified by the long, tubular perianth and classic trumpet form that distinguish these lilies from all other sections.

The natural range of Leucolirion is narrowly restricted compared to the widespread Sinomartagon, occurring almost entirely in the mountainous regions of southwest and west-central China. Its core distribution centers on Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi, Chongqing, northern Yunnan, and western Hubei, with only minor extensions into the montane borderlands of northern Vietnam and Myanmar. This region, characterized by deep river gorges, dry valleys, and rugged uplands, forms the evolutionary heartland of the Chinese trumpet lilies, home to iconic species such as L. regale, L. sargentiae, L. leucanthum, L. henryi, and L. sulphureum.

Leucolirion contains two classical subsections. Subsection Leucolirion includes the elegant white and cream-colored trumpet lilies with long, narrow tubes and powerful fragrance, adapted to dry, rocky river valleys such as the Min River gorge; species include L. regale, L. sargentiae, L. leucanthum, and L. sulphureum. Subsection Henricocaulon, the “henryi group,” contains more robust woodland-edge lilies with yellow, orange, or greenish flowers and slightly more open funnels, represented by species such as L. henryi and L. rosthornii. Together, these two subsections form one of the most horticulturally important branches of the genus Lilium, providing the genetic foundation for the famous trumpet and Aurelian hybrid lily groups.


section Leucolirion

Section 7 Daurolirion (miscellaneous): This section is composed of only two species. Daurolirion is composed of the words Dauria, a province in Siberia, and the word Lírio which means 'flower' or lily'. Modern phylogenies do not consistently support Daurolirion as a natural group.

  • Lilium dauricum (syn. L. pennsylvanicum) (Ker-Gawler 1809)
  • Lilium maculatum (syn. L. wilsoni) (Thunberg 1794)

References

Duan, T., et al. “Phylogeny and Divergence Time Estimation of Lilium (Liliaceae) Based on Plastid Genomes.” Frontiers in Plant Science 13 (2022).

Baker, R.J., and R.D. Bradley. “Speciation in Mammals and the Genetic Species Concept.” Journal of Mammalogy 87 (2006): 643–662.

McRae, E.A. Lilies: A Guide for Growers and Collectors. Portland: Timber Press, 1998.

Coyne, J.A., and H.A. Orr. Speciation. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 2004.

Comber, H.F. “A New Classification of the Genus Lilium.” Lily Year Book, Royal Horticultural Society (1949): 86–105.

Baranova, M.V. “A Morphological Study of the Genus Lilium (Liliaceae).” Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 96 (1988): 325–360.

Nishikawa, T., et al. “Molecular Phylogeny of the Genus Lilium Inferred from ITS Sequences.” Theoretical and Applied Genetics 98 (1999): 954–961.

Kim, J.H., et al. “Molecular Phylogenetics of the Genus Lilium and Related Genera.” Plant Systematics and Evolution 295 (2011): 145–159.

Hayashi, K., and T. Nishikawa. “Molecular Evolution and Phylogenetic Relationships of Lilium.” Journal of Plant Research 119 (2006): 389–397.
Lilium Genus section as proposed by Comber (1949)