Lilies of the world: Lilium species database


Lilium majoense picture by Riz Ryes

The Genus Lilium

The Genus Lilium: Global Distribution and Diversity

The genus Lilium (family Liliaceae) comprises over 100 recognized species and nearly 200 taxa when subspecies (ssp.) and varieties (var.) are included.

Native lilies occur throughout the temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere, with most species concentrated between approximately 30° and 60° north latitude. Several species extend well beyond this range, with northern populations reaching approximately 64–65°N in boreal Canada, while the southern limit of the genus extends into the mountains of southern India, where Lilium wallichianum var. neilgherrense occurs naturally near 11°N. The genus also reaches the northern Philippines through species such as Lilium philippinense. Together, these distributions illustrate the remarkable ecological breadth of Lilium, from subarctic forests to subtropical mountain systems. Several species have been introduced far beyond their native ranges and have established naturalized or feral populations. Lilium candidum has become naturalized in parts of Mexico, Lilium formosanum has escaped cultivation in portions of Africa, Australia, Hawaiʻi, and other subtropical regions, and Lilium pyrenaicum has become established in parts of Great Britain. Other species have undoubtedly naturalized elsewhere, reflecting both the horticultural popularity of lilies and the ability of some species to persist outside their native habitats. A notable example is Lilium zairii (Synonomous with Lilium formosanum), originally described from Central Africa but now generally regarded as a naturalized or feral derivative of Lilium formosanum, illustrating how cultivated lilies can occasionally establish self-sustaining wild populations far from their native range.

Although true lilies (genus Lilium) are cultivated worldwide, they are not generally considered invasive plants. Most species reproduce slowly, require specific soil and climate conditions, and lack the aggressive rhizomatous growth typical of genuinely invasive ornamentals. Consequently, the majority of Lilium species do not spread far beyond their planting sites and rarely pose a threat to native vegetation. Their natural sensitivity to drought, shade, and competition further limits their ability to dominate new environments.

A few species, however, have demonstrated the capacity to naturalize widely and may behave invasively under the right conditions. The most prominent example is Lilium formosanum, which has escaped cultivation and become invasive in regions such as Hawai‘i, South Africa, and parts of Australia, where it spreads rapidly by seed in disturbed or open habitats. Other species, including Lilium lancifolium, Lilium candidum, and Lilium pyrenaicum, have naturalized in various parts of the world but rarely pose ecological threats and are not classified as invasive. These species tend to persist rather than proliferate aggressively, underscoring that while naturalization is relatively common among cultivated lilies, true ecological invasiveness within the genus is uncommon.

Centers of Diversity

North America: approximately 30 species, mainly along the western and eastern coasts.

  • Europe: about 10 species, primarily Section Liriotypus.

  • Middle and East Asia: roughly 70 species, the global center of diversity.

  • Japan and the Russian Far East: around 30 species, 10 of which are endemic to Japan.

  • Indochina: few but morphologically complex species near the southern limits of the genus.

This distribution underlies the taxonomic and phylogenetic divisions within Lilium.

Distribution of the genus Lilium globally.

Recent DNA research reveals greater genetic diversity in Lilium than previously recognized. However, there is debate over whether these genetic distinctions represent new species or variation within broader species complexes.

Geographic isolation, genetic drift, and microhabitat adaptation can produce local phenotypes without full speciation.

Balancing molecular data with ecological and morphological context is therefore critical to avoid taxonomic over-splitting.¹

Taxonomic Hierarchy of the Genus Lilium

The classification of the genus Lilium has undergone significant revision over the past several decades. Historically, lilies were classified almost entirely on visible characteristics such as flower shape, bulb structure, seed germination, and leaf arrangement. The most influential of these systems was developed by H. F. Comber in 1949 and remained the standard for more than half a century. While remarkably accurate for its time, advances in molecular biology have shown that several of Comber's sections were not true evolutionary lineages.

Beginning in the early 2000s, analyses of chloroplast DNA, nuclear DNA, and, more recently, complete plastid genomes revealed that some traditionally recognized sections contained species that were only distantly related. As a result, modern classifications have reorganized the genus into evolutionary clades that better reflect the actual history of the genus. Although many of Comber's sectional names remain useful and continue to be recognized, they are now understood within the context of two major evolutionary lineages rather than seven equal sections.

Today, the accepted taxonomic hierarchy of the genus is as follows:

Taxonomic Rank Classification
Kingdom Plantae
Division Tracheophyta
Class Liliopsida (Monocots)
Order Liliales
Family Liliaceae
Subfamily Lilioideae
Tribe Lilieae
Genus Lilium

Within the genus, molecular studies recognize two principal evolutionary lineages.

Clade I – East Asian Lineage

  • Section Archelirion
  • Section Leucolirion (Chinese trumpet lilies)
  • Section Leucolirion (Aurelian group)
  • Section Sinomartagon I
  • Section Sinomartagon II
  • Section Sinomartagon III

Clade II – Eurasian and North American Lineage

  • Section Daurolirion
  • Section Liriotypus
  • Section Martagon
  • Section Pseudolirium

Section Pseudolirium contains all of the native North American lilies and represents the westernmost evolutionary radiation within the genus. Species such as Lilium pardalinum, L. washingtonianum, L. columbianum, L. occidentale, L. humboldtii, and their relatives all belong to this lineage.

Although the modern molecular classification continues to evolve as additional genomic data become available, it provides the most accurate representation of evolutionary relationships presently available. Throughout this website, the Lilium Species Foundation follows this modern phylogenetic framework while also referencing older sectional names where appropriate to assist readers consulting historical literature.

Defining a Species

A species is the most specific rank in biological classification, a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. Yet even this definition varies by discipline.

In Lilium, interbreeding occurs mainly within regional or phylogenetic complexes. Western American lilies, for example, can often cross with each other, but rarely with Asian or European species. Artificial hybrids, so-called “Frankenlilies”, may cross boundaries that do not occur naturally but do not constitute new species in the biological sense.

Because “species” can be defined in multiple ways, it is important to state which concept is being used. Common frameworks include:

  • Taxonomic species: defined by shared physical traits suggesting close relationship.

  • Genetic species: genetically isolated populations identified through DNA data.

  • Evolutionarily significant species: recognized for conservation purposes.

  • Phylogenetic species: a distinct evolutionary lineage maintaining genetic integrity over time.

  • Ecological (niche) species: populations adapted to a specific ecological setting.

Each emphasizes different criteria, morphology, genetics, ecology, or conservation value, so definitions must be applied consistently and with context.²

Subspecies, Varieties, and Natural Variation

Although the terms subspecies, variety, and cultivar are often used interchangeably in everyday conversation, they represent fundamentally different concepts in botany and horticulture.

A subspecies (subsp. or ssp.) is a geographically distinct breeding population within a species that possesses consistent genetic differences and occupies a recognizable portion of the species' natural range. Subspecies typically occur in similar habitats throughout their distribution, breed true from seed, and remain genetically distinguishable from other subspecies of the same species despite retaining the ability to interbreed where their ranges overlap. For example, Lilium pardalinum subsp. wigginsii is restricted to a relatively small region of southern Oregon and northern California, where it forms a stable, naturally occurring breeding population with consistent morphological and genetic characteristics that distinguish it from other members of the Lilium pardalinum complex.

A botanical variety (var.) is a naturally occurring taxonomic rank below subspecies that describes plants with consistent inherited characteristics, often associated with a particular geographic region or ecological habitat. Unlike a subspecies, a variety generally differs by one or a few relatively minor morphological traits rather than representing a genetically distinct breeding population. For example, Lilium pardalinum var. giganteum consistently produces larger flowers and more robust growth than typical L. pardalinum, but these characteristics do not necessarily define an isolated breeding population that breeds uniformly true from seed. Botanical varieties arise through natural evolutionary processes and are recognized under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN).

A cultivar (short for cultivated variety) is a horticultural designation governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP). Cultivars are selected or developed by humans because they possess desirable characteristics, such as flower color, fragrance, plant form, vigor, or disease resistance. These traits are maintained through careful propagation, either vegetatively or through controlled breeding. Many cultivars originate from a single exceptional plant, while others consist of carefully selected breeding lines.

In summary, a subspecies represents a distinct natural breeding population with consistent genetic differences; a botanical variety represents naturally occurring variation within a species, usually involving one or a few stable inherited characteristics; and a cultivar represents variation created or maintained through human selection and cultivation.⁴

Rank What it represents
Species An independent evolutionary lineage.
Subspecies A geographically distinct, genetically differentiated breeding population within a species.
Variety A naturally occurring form differing by one or a few stable inherited characteristics.
Form (f.) A minor naturally occurring variation, often involving a single trait such as flower color.
Cultivar A human-selected plant maintained in cultivation.

Classical Taxonomic Sections (Comber 1949)

The genus Lilium is traditionally divided into seven sections, following Comber (1949).⁵

These group species by morphology and geography and remain the framework for most horticultural and floristic work.

Section – Region or Type

Martagon – Europe and western Asia
Liriotypus – Mediterranean and Persia
Archelirion – Eastern Asia (Japan, China)
Sinomartagon – Central and East Asia (Asiatic section)
Pseudolirium – North America
Leucolirion – Southeast Asia (trumpet section)
Daurolirion – Himalayas and Mongolia

Baranova (1988) later proposed finer divisions, creating 11 sections and reassigning some European species.⁶

Despite such refinements, Comber’s structure remains the most practical basis for classification.

Modern Cladistic Reorganization

(see, The Phylogeny and Evolutionary Structure of the Genus Lilium)

For more than seventy years, the genus Lilium has been organized using Harold Comber's sectional classification, which grouped species according to their morphology, bulb characteristics, germination type, and geographic distribution. This system remains extremely useful for identification and horticulture and continues to provide the foundation for much of modern lily taxonomy.

Advances in DNA sequencing, however, have transformed our understanding of how lilies evolved. Molecular studies demonstrate that while several of Comber's sections correspond closely to natural evolutionary lineages, others do not. Some sections contain species that evolved independently but retained similar physical characteristics, while others represent lineages that diverged much earlier than morphology alone suggests.

Modern phylogenetic research therefore complements, rather than replaces, the traditional classification. The familiar sections remain valuable practical tools, but DNA evidence now allows us to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the genus and identify groups of species that share a common ancestor.

The simplified phylogenetic tree below summarizes our current understanding of the major evolutionary relationships within Lilium. Because ongoing genomic research continues to refine these relationships, the tree should be viewed as a working evolutionary hypothesis rather than a final classification.

                 Common Ancestor of Lilium
                           │
             (~17–20 million years ago)
                           │
    ┌──────────────────────┴────────────────────────┐
    │                                               │
    │                                               │

East Asian Radiation Eurasian / North American Radiation
│ │
│ │
┌────┴─────┐ ┌─────┴───────────────────────┐
│ │ │ │
Archelirion Chinese Liriotypus Martagon
(Japan) Trumpets (6a) (Europe) (Eurasia)
│
│
Pseudolirium
(North America)
│
│
┌──────────────────┴──────────────────┐
│ │
Western North America Eastern North America

                         ----------------------------------------------

         Derived Asian Radiations
                │
 ┌──────────────┼───────────────────────┐
 │              │                       │

Leucolirion 6b Sinomartagon Former Nomocharis
(Longiflorum) (multiple clades) Himalayan lineage
│
Daurolirion

A New Way of Ranking: Cladistic

Modern evolutionary biology organizes organisms into clades, groups that include a common ancestor and all of its descendants. Unlike traditional taxonomic ranks, clades are identified primarily through DNA analysis and reflect true evolutionary history rather than overall similarity in appearance.

A clade may correspond closely to a traditional section, encompass several sections, or reveal that a traditional section actually consists of multiple unrelated evolutionary lineages. For example, molecular studies show that Pseudolirium, Martagon, and Liriotypus remain largely intact as natural lineages, whereas the traditional sections Sinomartagon and Leucolirion each contain species belonging to more than one evolutionary branch.⁸

Modern cladistics does not replace the Linnaean system, it enhances it. Traditional taxonomy provides a stable framework for naming and identifying plants, while cladistics explains how those plants are related through evolution. Together they provide the most complete understanding of the genus Lilium.

Rank and Function:

Traditional Linnaean Taxonomy Modern Evolutionary (Cladistic) Interpretation
Clade (not a taxonomic rank) A monophyletic group consisting of a common ancestor and all of its descendants. A clade may encompass one or several traditional taxonomic ranks.
Order Contains one or more related families descended from a common ancestral lineage.
Family A group of related genera sharing structural characteristics and common ancestry.
Tribe A subdivision of a family uniting especially closely related genera.
Genus A lineage of closely related species descended from a recent common ancestor.
Subgenus An optional subdivision of a genus representing one or more closely related evolutionary lineages.
Section A practical grouping of closely related species. Many sections correspond closely to clades, although some have been shown by DNA studies to contain multiple evolutionary lineages.
Species An independently evolving lineage recognized through morphology, genetics, ecology, geography, and reproductive continuity.
Subspecies A geographically or ecologically distinct population within a species showing consistent inherited differences.
Variety (var.) A naturally occurring subdivision of a species distinguished by relatively minor but stable inherited characteristics.
Form (f.) A minor naturally occurring variation, often involving a single characteristic such as flower color.

Another way of visualizing a clad is:

             Modern Evolutionary Classification

                      ┌─────────────────────────────┐
                      │          CLADE              │
                      │ Common ancestor + all       │
                      │ descendants                 │
                      └─────────────┬───────────────┘
                                    │
      ┌─────────────────────────────┴────────────────────────────┐
      │                                                          │
  Family                                                   Family
      │                                                          │
    Tribe                                                     Tribe
      │                                                          │
    Genus                                                     Genus
      │                                                          │
  Section                                                  Section
      │                                                          │
   Species                                                 Species|

Cladistics complements, rather than replaces, traditional taxonomy.
Linnaean ranks provide structure and consistency, while clades reveal true evolutionary relationships.

Integrating both approaches gives a more complete understanding of Lilium evolution, from the Mediterranean Liriotypus to the American Pseudolirium and Asiatic Sinomartagon lineages.⁹

Practical Implications and Conclusion.

Why should I care about any of this?

The past century has witnessed a remarkable transformation in our understanding of the genus Lilium. What began as a classification based primarily on visible characteristics has evolved into a much deeper understanding of the evolutionary history of lilies through molecular genetics. Traditional taxonomy and modern phylogenetics are not competing systems; rather, they complement one another. Linnaean taxonomy provides a stable and universally recognized framework for naming and identifying lilies, while cladistics reveals the evolutionary relationships that unite them.

For botanists, this improved understanding helps reconstruct the evolutionary history of the genus. For conservationists, accurate taxonomy ensures that threatened species and distinct populations receive appropriate protection. For researchers, it provides a common language that allows scientific discoveries to be compared across studies. For growers, it offers valuable insights into the natural history of each species, often helping explain similarities in cultivation requirements, ecological preferences, disease resistance, and evolutionary adaptations.

The Lilium Species Foundation is dedicated to advancing the understanding, conservation, and cultivation of wild lily species. Accurate taxonomy forms the foundation of this mission. Every correctly identified plant represents not only a name, but an evolutionary lineage with its own geographic history, ecological adaptations, and conservation significance.

Whether studying lilies in the wild or cultivating them in a garden, careful documentation remains essential. Recording provenance, habitat, elevation, associated vegetation, soil conditions, and climate preserves information that may prove as valuable as the plant itself. Likewise, maintaining accurate records of cultivated material helps preserve genetic integrity, supports scientific research, and increases the long-term conservation value of living collections.

Ultimately, good taxonomy begins with good information. As our understanding of Lilium continues to evolve through ongoing research, careful observation, thoughtful record-keeping, and respect for natural variation ensure that both the science and cultivation of lilies remain accurate, meaningful, and enduring.

Lily Species by Section

The sectional arrangement presented here is based primarily on the classification developed by Harold F. Comber (1949), which remains the standard framework used by botanists and horticulturists for organizing the genus Lilium. Species are grouped according to Comber's seven traditional sections, with nomenclature and selected placements updated where appropriate to reflect current taxonomic and molecular research.

Primary references: Comber (1949); McRae (1998); Plants of the World Online (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew); World Flora Online; Kim et al. (2019); Du et al. (2024).

Traditional Classification (Comber): for identification and historical continuity.

The classification presented here follows the sectional system developed by Harold F. Comber (1949), which has served as the standard framework for organizing the genus Lilium for more than seventy-five years. Although advances in molecular genetics have refined our understanding of evolutionary relationships within the genus, Comber's seven sections remain the most practical, recognizable, and widely used system for identifying and comparing lily species.

Throughout this website, species are organized according to Comber's classical sectional classification. Where appropriate, notes are included describing how modern molecular studies have modified or refined our understanding of relationships within each section. In this way, the traditional framework is preserved while incorporating the best available evolutionary evidence.

Lilium

├── Section Martagon
│
├── Section Pseudolirium
│
├── Section Liriotypus
│
├── Section Archelirion
│
├── Section Leucolirion
│
├── Section Sinomartagon
│
└── Section Daurolirion

Modern Evolutionary Relationships

Advances in molecular genetics over the past three decades have significantly refined our understanding of evolutionary relationships within the genus Lilium. DNA sequencing has demonstrated that while Comber's sectional classification remains highly relevant and continues to provide an excellent practical framework for organizing the genus, not all of the traditional sections represent single evolutionary lineages. Several sections have proven to be monophyletic and closely reflect shared ancestry, whereas others consist of multiple independent lineages that evolved similar characteristics or retained ancestral traits.

Throughout this website, Comber's traditional sections are retained because they remain the standard organizational system used throughout the botanical and horticultural literature. Modern phylogenetic relationships are presented alongside the traditional classification to provide additional evolutionary context and to illustrate how our understanding of the genus continues to develop as new genetic evidence becomes available.

LILIUM

Common Ancestor
│
├── Archelirion
│
├── Chinese Trumpet Clade
│
└── Crown Radiation
│
├── Liriotypus
│
├── Martagon
│
├── Pseudolirium
│
├── Sinomartagon I
│
├── Sinomartagon II
│
├── Sinomartagon III
│
├── Nomocharis Clade
│
├── Longiflorum Clade
│
└── Daurolirion

Enough Taxonom, Let's Meet the Lilies

Hopefully, at this point you're not too confused, or frustrated, that you've decided lilies simply aren't worth the effort. If so, let me assure you: you're not alone.

Plant taxonomy can be confusing, and at times it feels like an endless rabbit hole of changing names, classifications, and scientific debates. As our understanding of genetics and evolution improves, classifications continue to evolve, making the subject even more challenging to follow.

And let's be honest, most people probably don't care all that much about exactly where a particular lily species fits within a taxonomic hierarchy. What they really want to know is what the plant looks like, where it grows, how it lives, and perhaps how to cultivate or conserve it.

That's where the rest of this website begins.

The following pages are devoted to the individual species themselves. Here you'll find information on their natural distribution, habitat, ecology, distinguishing characteristics, cultivation, conservation status, and the remarkable diversity that makes the genus Lilium one of the world's most fascinating groups of flowering plants.

So, with the taxonomy behind us, let's turn our attention to what brought us here in the first place, the lilies themselves.

Liliy species of the world

Section 1 Martagon (Eurasian Turk's-cap Lilies)

section Martagon
  • Distribution: Europe to eastern Asia
  • Diagnostic Characteristics: Strongly recurved flowers, spotted tepals, woodland to montane habitats.
  • Modern Phylogeny: Molecular studies strongly support Martagon as a natural evolutionary lineage (monophyletic).
  • Representative Species: Lilium martagon, L. hansonii, L. tsingtauense, L. medeoloides

The name martagon traces back to Ottoman Turkish, referring to a distinctive style of turban worn during the early Ottoman period and associated in some accounts with Sultan Mehmed a comparison early European botanists made to the recurved, backward-sweeping tepals of these lilies. The flower’s silhouette, drooping, reflexed, and tightly curled, evoked the flared edges of this traditional headgear, leading Renaissance herbalists to adopt the term martagon to signify a “turban lily.” This same root also appears in Sinomartagon (“Chinese turban lily”), making the etymology parallel and morphologically descriptive across sections.

Geographically, Section Martagon occupies a broad, cool-temperate arc across Eurasia, forming the northern counterpart to both the southwest Chinese trumpet lilies (Leucolirion) and the widespread Sino–Indochinese Asiatic lilies (Sinomartagon). Its core range begins in the mountain systems of central Europe, the Alps, Carpathians, and Dinaric ranges, and extends across Poland, the Balkans, Hungary, Romania, and western Ukraine. From there it continues eastward into southern Russia, the southern Ural Mountains, and the south Siberian ranges of the Altai, Sayan, and Baikal region. Throughout this distribution, Martagon lilies are associated with cool summers, montane forests, shaded woodland margins, and high-elevation meadows.

Although wide-ranging, the section avoids both extremes: it is absent from the Mediterranean lowlands to the south and from Scandinavia or the Arctic taiga to the north, keeping to a temperate, forested mid-latitude band. In this way, Martagon forms the Eurasian cool-temperate lily complex, sitting geographically between the trumpets of southwest China (Leucolirion) and the vast Asiatic radiation of Sinomartagon. (McRae 1998)

Molecular studies strongly support Section Martagon as a natural evolutionary lineage (monophyletic). Although recent phylogenetic analyses have refined relationships within the section and among neighboring groups, the traditional five-species circumscription remains widely recognized and is followed here.

Section 2, Pseudolirium (North American lilies)


Section pseudolirion

Pseudolirium, includes all the native North American Lilium species, roughly twenty-one in total, making it the sole section of the genus restricted entirely to the New World. The name is formed from the Greek components pseudo-, meaning false or resembling, and lirion, meaning lily or flower. In botanical Latin, however, the sense is not “false lily,” but rather “lily-like,” “resembling the Old World lilies,” or parallel to the true lirion group. The name reflects early taxonomic thinking: North American lilies share many structural traits with Eurasian groups but form a distinct evolutionary lineage clearly separated from their Old World relatives.

Geographically, Pseudolirium occupies a broad but ecologically specific range across western, central, and eastern North America, with centers of diversity from Canada, down along the Pacific Coast, throughout the Cascade Range, the Kalamth and Siskiyou montians, down the Sierra Nevada and into Northen Mexico in the Baja California Mountians and northen Sierra Madre mountains. In the eastern United States as well as the southeastern United States. The section spans habitats from wet coastal forests, bogs, and montane meadows to high-elevation ridges, post-fire chaparral, and prairie or savanna margins. Many species are adapted to disturbance regimes, especially periodic wildfire, while others prefer moist riparian zones or subalpine slopes. This ecological breadth makes Pseudolirium one of the most diverse sections of Lilium in terms of habitat and growth form.

Taxonomically, the section is divided into four subsections, based on morphology, seed type, ecology, and evolutionary relationships.

  • Western Mountain Species (A)
  • Pacific Coast Species (B)
  • Eastern North American Species (C)
  • Southeastern Coastal Species (D)

Though treatments differ slightly between authors, the four classical groupings separate the western fire-following lilies, the coastal and montane species, the Rocky Mountain and interior taxa, and the eastern/southeastern species. Together these subsections encompass the full radiation of North American lilies, whose diversity rivals, and in some regions exceeds, their Old World counterparts.

As with the other major sections of Lilium, the name Pseudolirium follows the same linguistic pattern using ancient Greek roots to encode morphological and geographic meaning. In the case of Pseudolirium, this meaning is “the lilies that resemble the Old World lirion group but are distinct and separate in origin,” marking the section as the New World counterpart to the Eurasian lily radiations.

Section Pseudolirium is strongly supported by molecular studies as a natural evolutionary lineage (monophyletic). While relationships among several western North American species, particularly those within the Lilium pardalinum complex, continue to be refined, the section as a whole remains one of the best-supported groups within the genus.

Subsection A (S2a) (Western Mountain Species)

Subsection B (S2b) (Pacific Coast Species)

Subsection C (S2c) (Eastern North American Species)

Subsection D (S2d) (Southeastern Coastal Species)

Cryptospecies

  • L. nevadaense (Eastwood 1933)
    (Synomous: Lilium fresnense, Lilium inyoense, Lilium nevadense var. fresnense, Lilium nevadense var. monense, Lilium nevadense var. shastense, Lilium nevadense, Lilium pardalinum var. parviflorum) is not a currently recognized species. It has been a synoynm with L. kellyanum and varaieties of L. pardalinum. It has been from time to time incorrectly listed with the current accepted North American lily species. Where it is used it should be considered referring to an ecotype of L. paradlinum. We are including it as reference only to for the sake of prosperity and research.

Section 3 Liriotypus (European and Near Eastern Lilies)

Section Liriotypus

Liriotypus, (S3) Mediterranean (Europe, the Mediterranean Basin, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and the Near East): Section Liriotypus is named from the Greek lírio (λείριον), meaning flower or lily, and týpos (τύπος), meaning a figure, model, or classical archetype. The name therefore signifies the “classical lily type,” almost certainly in reference to Lilium candidum, the Madonna Lily, which for millennia has been regarded as the quintessential lily in Western art, religion, and horticultural symbolism. Its elegant, star-shaped, outward-facing flowers and long cultural history made L. candidum the visual and symbolic “type” against which other lilies were compared.

According to Comber (1949), Section Liriotypus includes approximately twenty species and encompasses all European, Turkish, and Caucasian lilies except for Lilium martagon, which, due to its unique morphology and exceptionally wide Eurasian range, belongs to Section Martagon. The boundaries of Liriotypus are defined biogeographically by a longstanding distribution gap: as Stern (1938) noted, no wild lilies occur between Asia Minor / the Caucasus and eastern Afghanistan, meaning that Liriotypus contains all Lilium species native to regions west of this gap—essentially, the lilies of Europe and the Near East.

Morphologically, most Liriotypus species share the characteristic Turk’s cap (recurved) flower form, along with scattered, spirally arranged leaves, features that distinguish them from the trumpet lilies of Leucolirion and the upright or outward-facing forms of Archelirion. Two notable exceptions exist within the section: Lilium candidum, with its widely funnel-shaped, nearly trumpet-like flowers, and Lilium bulbiferum, whose blooms are erect and bowl-shaped. These exceptions illustrate the diversity contained within Liriotypus, yet the majority of species adhere to the classic reflexed “Turk’s cap” phenotype defined by McRae (1998).

As a whole, Section Liriotypus represents the classical Western lily lineage, linking the lilies of Europe, Anatolia, and the Caucasus through shared floral architecture, biogeography, and a long history of cultural significance.

Modern Phylogenetic Status. Molecular studies indicate that Liriotypus largely represents a natural evolutionary lineage (monophyletic), making it one of the traditional sections that has been largely confirmed by DNA evidence. While the placement of a few southeastern European and Caucasian species continues to be investigated, the section remains a robust and practical framework for understanding the lilies of Europe and the Near East.

Section 4 Archelirion (Oriental Lilies of Japan and the East Asian Islands)

section Archelirion
  • Distribution: Japan, the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, Korea, and the southeastern coast of China.
  • Diagnostic Characteristics: Large, outward-facing, often intensely fragrant flowers; broad tepals; humid maritime habitats; the foundation of the Oriental hybrid lilies.
  • Representative Species: Lilium auratum, L. speciosum, L. japonicum, L. rubellum, and L. alexandrae.

Archelirion (oriental selection): The name Archelirion is formed from the Greek archē (ἀρχή), meaning "chief," "principal," or "first," and lirion (λείριον), meaning "lily." The name therefore conveys the sense of the "principal lily" or "chief lily," an appropriate description for this group of spectacular East Asian species that includes many of the largest and most ornamental lilies in the genus. Unlike the reflexed Turk's-cap flowers of Martagon or the long tubular trumpets of Leucolirion, the flowers of Archelirion are typically broad, open, and outward-facing, making them among the most iconic lilies in East Asia.

Section Archelirion includes most of the indigenous lilies of Japan, extending through the islands of Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu, and the Ryukyu chain, with additional species occurring in Taiwan, Korea, and the southeastern coast of China (particularly Fujian, Zhejiang, Guangdong, and Guangxi). This section can be a bit confusing, especially regarding the island lilies of the Ryukyu–Taiwan–Luzon Arc (see The Southern Maritime Lineage of Section Archelirion: Japan, Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, and Luzon), where the floristic boundaries between Archelirion and certain marginal Sinomartagon species blur, and where island endemics show transitional morphological traits shaped by monsoonal, coastal, and montane environments.

Ecologically, Archelirion is associated with humid, maritime climates, monsoon-driven summers, and montane to submontane forest margins, conditions that favor the development of large, flared, often intensely fragrant blossoms. Species such as Lilium auratum, L. speciosum, L. japonicum, and L. nobilissimum exemplify this combination of open floral architecture, strong coloration, and pronounced scent. These features have made Archelirion one of the most influential sections in lily horticulture, forming the principal genetic foundation of the modern Oriental hybrid lilies, one of the world's most important groups of ornamental lilies."

In summary, Archelirion represents the open-flowered, maritime East Asian lineage of the genus Lilium, centered in Japan but extending into Taiwan, Korea, and coastal China. Its complex interplay of island biogeography and monsoonal ecology mirrors, in the eastern arc of Asia, the same regional coherence found in Leucolirion in southwestern China and Liriotypus in Europe.

Molecular studies strongly support Archelirion as a natural evolutionary lineage (monophyletic). It is the sister lineage to the Chinese trumpet lilies (Leucolirion subsection 6a).

Section 5 Sinomartagon (Asiatic Lilies)

section Sinomartagon
  • Distribution: China, Korea, the Russian Far East, Bhutan, and the mountains of Indochina (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam).
  • Diagnostic Characteristics: Highly diverse lilies with upright, nodding, or recurved flowers occupying habitats ranging from temperate forests and grasslands to subtropical mountains.
  • Representative Species: Lilium lancifolium, L. davidii, L. concolor, L. callosum, and L. nepalense.

Sinomartagon Section Sinomartagon is the largest and most taxonomically diverse section within the traditional classification of Lilium. Occupying much of China, Korea, the Russian Far East, Bhutan, and the mountains of Indochina, it encompasses an extraordinary diversity of habitats ranging from temperate forests and grasslands to subtropical mountain systems. is native to China, Bhutan, and Indochina (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam), the Sinomartagon section includes a wide array of Asiatic lilies adapted to temperate, montane, and subtropical environments. The name itself reflects its origins: Sinomartagon combines Sin- meaning Chinese (from Latin Sinæ, the Chinese, ultimately from Ptolemaic Greek Sinai and Arabic Sin, all likely derived from Chinese Qin, the name of the Qin dynasty), with martagon, already discussed in Section 1, referring to the turban-shaped form found in several Old World lily species. Literaly meaning "Chinese Turban' or 'Chinese Martagon'.

This section is diverse and taxonomically complex, and it is typically divided into three subsections based on morphology, ecology, and geographic distribution. Sinomartagon occupies most of China, extending broadly across the northeast, north, central, eastern, and southern provinces, and reaching southward into Bhutan and the montane regions of northern Indochina (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam).

Within this vast Sino–Indochinese range lies a much more restricted enclave concentrated in southwest and west-central China, notably Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi, Chongqing, and northern Yunnan, with smaller extensions into western Hubei and eastern Tibet. This limited restricted region represents Section Leucolirion, the heartland of the true Chinese trumpet lilies (L. regale, L. sargentiae, L. sulphureum, L. leucanthum, L. brownii, and L. henryi), whose narrow distribution contrasts sharply with the expansive range of Sinomartagon.

Unlike Martagon, Pseudolirium, and Archelirion, molecular studies have shown that traditional Sinomartagon does not represent a single natural evolutionary lineage. Instead, it comprises several independent clades whose members evolved similar morphological characteristics through shared ancestry, retained ancestral traits, or convergent evolution. Despite this, Comber's sectional arrangement remains the most practical way of organizing these species for identification and horticultural purposes, and is therefore retained throughout this website.

Subsection A (S5a) (Northeast Asian & continental species)

Subsection B (S5b) (Northeastern Asiatic Lilies)

Subsection C (S5c) (Himalayan and Southwestern Chinese Lilies)

This section contains the L. nepalense complex and realted species which can be confusing. We've tried to be as clear as possible about the complex relationships within this subsection. (See description)

Subsection D (S5d) (Indochinese Transitional Species)

The designation of these species have been debated for some time. It is widely accepted that this section of species i)n Indochina, Bhutan, Myanmar (Burma), etc. are a taxonomical disaster. Until further research can accurately separate them into their proper sections we will leave them for now in the section they have been placed with the acknowledgment they might be moved or reclassified later.

Section 6 Leucolirion (Trumpet Section)

section Leucolirion
  • Distribution: Southwestern and west-central China, with extensions into northern Myanmar, northern Vietnam, Taiwan, the Philippines, and the Himalayas.
  • Diagnostic Characteristics: Large trumpet- or funnel-shaped flowers, strong fragrance, and adaptation to mountain slopes, rocky gorges, and forest margins.
  • Representative Species: Lilium regale, L. sargentiae, L. leucanthum, L. longiflorum, and L. henryi.

Leucolirion: the true Chinese trumpet lilies, is traditionally divided into two subsections based on floral morphology, ecological preferences, and geographic distribution. The name itself comes from the Greek roots leuco- meaning “white” or “light-colored,” and lirion meaning “lily,” a fitting description for the section’s pale, fragrant, trumpet-shaped flowers. Although not all species are strictly white, the entire group is unified by the long, tubular perianth and classic trumpet form that distinguish these lilies from all other sections.

The natural range of Leucolirion is narrowly restricted compared to the widespread Sinomartagon, occurring almost entirely in the mountainous regions of southwest and west-central China. Its core distribution centers on Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi, Chongqing, northern Yunnan, and western Hubei, with only minor extensions into the montane borderlands of northern Vietnam and Myanmar. This region, characterized by deep river gorges, dry valleys, and rugged uplands, forms the evolutionary heartland of the Chinese trumpet lilies, home to iconic species such as L. regale, L. sargentiae, L. leucanthum, L. henryi, and L. sulphureum.

Leucolirion has traditionally been divided into two subsections based on floral morphology and geography. Modern DNA studies generally support the continued recognition of these two groups, but indicate that they represent separate evolutionary lineages rather than a single natural clade.. Subsection Leucolirion includes the elegant white and cream-colored trumpet lilies with long, narrow tubes and powerful fragrance, adapted to dry, rocky river valleys such as the Min River gorge; species include L. regale, L. sargentiae, L. leucanthum, and L. sulphureum. Subsection Henricocaulon, the “henryi group,” contains more robust woodland-edge lilies with yellow, orange, or greenish flowers and slightly more open funnels, represented by species such as L. henryi and L. rosthornii. Together, these two subsections form one of the most horticulturally important branches of the genus Lilium, providing the genetic foundation for the famous trumpet and Aurelian hybrid lily groups.

Molecular studies demonstrate that the traditional Section Leucolirion consists of two major evolutionary lineages. The true Chinese trumpet lilies (Subsection Leucolirion) form a distinct clade centered in southwestern China, whereas the Longiflorum–Henryi group (formerly Henricocaulon) represents a separate lineage extending into Taiwan, the Ryukyus, the Philippines, and the Himalayas. Comber's traditional arrangement is retained here because it continues to provide a practical framework for identification and horticulture.

Subsection A (S6a) (True Chinese Trumpet Lilies)

Subsection B (S6b) (Longiflorum–Henryi Group)

Section 7 Daurolirion (miscellaneous):

This section is composed of only two species. Daurolirion is composed of the words Dauria, a province in Siberia, and the word Lírio which means 'flower' or lily'. Modern phylogenies do not consistently support Daurolirion as a natural group.

  • Lilium dauricum (syn. L. pennsylvanicum) (Ker-Gawler 1809)

References

Duan, T., et al. “Phylogeny and Divergence Time Estimation of Lilium (Liliaceae) Based on Plastid Genomes.” Frontiers in Plant Science 13 (2022).

Baker, R.J., and R.D. Bradley. “Speciation in Mammals and the Genetic Species Concept.” Journal of Mammalogy 87 (2006): 643–662.

McRae, E.A. Lilies: A Guide for Growers and Collectors. Portland: Timber Press, 1998.

Coyne, J.A., and H.A. Orr. Speciation. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 2004.

Comber, H.F. “A New Classification of the Genus Lilium.” Lily Year Book, Royal Horticultural Society (1949): 86–105.

Baranova, M.V. “A Morphological Study of the Genus Lilium (Liliaceae).” Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 96 (1988): 325–360.

Nishikawa, T., et al. “Molecular Phylogeny of the Genus Lilium Inferred from ITS Sequences.” Theoretical and Applied Genetics 98 (1999): 954–961.

Kim, J.H., et al. “Molecular Phylogenetics of the Genus Lilium and Related Genera.” Plant Systematics and Evolution 295 (2011): 145–159.

Hayashi, K., and T. Nishikawa. “Molecular Evolution and Phylogenetic Relationships of Lilium.” Journal of Plant Research 119 (2006): 389–397.
Lilium Genus section as proposed by Comber (1949)